Study Questions for Exam 1

2006

Define "anatomy" and "physiology"

History of Anatomy & Physiology/Medicine

“Healer” has meant different things to different people throughout history. What three features have characterized a healer for much of human history?

What is the significance of the following historical figures (in terms of anatomy/physiology/medicine)? Hippocrates, Galen, DaVinci, Vesalius, Avicenna (ibn Sina), Harvey, van Leeuwenhook, Descartes, Jenner, Darwin

What are the “four humors?”
Who is a humorist and not a comedian? Robin Williams, Dave Chapelle, Chris Rock, or Will Rogers.
What is the significance of the Hippocratic oath? Which aspects of the oath appear strange today? Which aspects are relevant to medical practice today?
Who was Aescalpius?
What is a caduceus?
What is the “cell theory?”
What is the “germ theory of disease?”
During the 19th and 20th centuries, what were the major advances in our understanding of the body?

General terminology
What are the structural levels of body organization? Be able to define: cell, tissue, organ, organ system, organism, superorganism.

What is the "anatomical position?"
Know the key terms related to location and position -- e.g., medial, lateral, distal, proximal, etc.
The "belly" is anterior in humans, but is ____________ in cats.
A sagittal (or transverse, or coronal plane) divides an organism into ________________ & ________________ portions/sides.
A parasagittal plane divides a body into __________ ____________ and _______________ sides. (Be specific).
The wrist is _____________ to the elbow.
The head is __________ to the neck.
What are the two major cavities of the body? Which smaller cavities or regions are found in these two cavities?
The __________________ separates the thoracic cavity from the abdominal cavity.
The ________________ pericardium and _________________ pericardium are the linings of the ____________ cavity.

Homeostasis
What is homeostasis? What is negative feedback? positive feedback?
Why are negative feedback mechanisms more common than positive feedback mechanisms?
What are the basic components of any feedback system?
What is a "set point"?
What is the significance of an altered set point? (When or why might a set point be altered?) Outline an example of an altered set point.
Describe a naturally occurring positive feedback cycle, e.g., labor, blood clotting.

Chemistry
What are the four major (most abundant) elements of life? Which are found in nearly all organic molecules and which is found primarily in proteins and nucleic acids?
Know elemental symbols for major and lesser elements. (e.g., Na = sodium, K = potassium, Mg = magnesium.)
Which elements are important in nerve and muscle physiology?
What is an electrolyte?
To be chemically "organic," a compound must contain _________ & _________.
What are the three basic bond types? Which two involve the attraction of opposite charges? Which one involves the sharing of electrons?
What is meant by "polar" and "non-polar"?
Metabolism = ___________________ + __________________________.
What is a hydrolysis reaction? Condensation or synthesis reaction?
What are the primary roles of water in the body?
A(n) _________________ can accept a hydrogen ion, whereas a(n) __________ can donate a hydrogen ion.
What is pH? If solution A has 1,000 times more hydrogen ions than solution B and solution B has a pH of 7, what is the pH of solution A?
What is a buffer? Why are buffers important in the body?
Define and give an example of: saccharide, disaccharide, polysaccharide.
Hydrolysis of a disaccharide results in _________________________.
A saturated fat has no __________________ in the fatty acid chains.
What is the difference between a triglyceride and a phospholipid? What do they have in common? What is the key role of phospholipids?
Why are trans fatty acids less fluid than cis fatty acids? Why is there a concern about trans fatty acids in our diet?
Has lard been given a "bad rap"? Compare lard with butter in terms of saturated fat and cholesterol.
What are the two general roles of steroids?
What are prostaglandins (eicosanoids)? What are some of their key functions?
Peptide bonds join __________________ to form __________________.
The alpha-helix and beta pleated sheet are ___________ forms of protein.
Sickle cell anemia is a good example of how a change in one level of protein organization influences the next level of protein organization. Explain.
What are the two general structural classes of protein?
An organic catalyst of a reaction usually is a(n) __________________.
What is the difference between a cofactor and a coenzyme?
What is the "active site" of an enzyme?
The mechanism of enzyme action is often compared with the way keys and locks interact. Why?
Contrast the lock-and-key mechanism of enzyme action with the induced-fit model. (covered in lab)
A nucleotide contains 3 components: a base, ____________ & _______.
Nucleic acids have a _______ ________ backbone with ______________ "sticking out at the sides."
What is meant by "complementary base pairing"?
What type of organic molecule is ATP? What is the significance of ATP?

Chapter 3: Cell
What is the fluid mosaic model of the cell membrane?  What is the fluid part?  What is the mosaic part?
Sketch and label a generic cell membrane. (At least be able to identify the key components of the cell membrane if given a sketch of a cell membrane.)
What is meant by "hydrophilic" and "hydrophobic" and how do these terms relate to membrane structure?
On which side of the membrane is carbohydrate normally found? 
What are two functions of membrane carbohydrates?
What is meant by "lipid bilayer?" 
What is the difference between a peripheral and integral protein?
What is the difference between active and passive transport processes? 
Contrast simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion, osmosis, and active transport. 
Compare how carbon dioxide and glucose get through the cell membrane.
What happens to a cell in a hypertonic environment?  hypotonic environment?  isotonic environment?
A cell has an osmolarity of 300 mOsm. If the cell is put in seawater, 1000 mOsm, what happens? Why?
What enables a cell to maintain a high internal concentration of potassium and a low concentration of sodium?  How is this related to membrane electrical potential?
What is secondary active transport?  Give an example.
Phagocytosis is __________________ and is one type of ____________________________.
What is the difference between pinocytosis and receptor mediated endocytosis?

Organelles & Protein Synthesis

Know your organelles!!!!!  General structure and function.
Which organelles have double membranes?
Mitochondria are found in the _________ and produce _____________. 
The two major structures of the cytoskeleton are ___________ & _____________. They are made up of the proteins _______ and ________, respectively.
The _______ is the assembly site for ribosomes. 
Which organelles are composed of sacs and tubules?
What is the structural and functional difference between SER and RER?
What is the function of the Golgi apparatus?  How does it relate to the RER?
What is the function of lysosomes?  What do lysosomes contain?
What is the cytoskeleton?  What are its major components?
What is the difference between a cilium and a flagellum?  Where are they found in the body?
Why does the nucleus have pores?  What is the nuclear pore complex?
What is the difference between a gene, chromatin, and a chromosome?
How is a gene "decoded" to make a protein?  Outline the major steps.  Where do the major steps take place?
What are the three types of RNA and what are their roles in protein synthesis?
Where would one find a codon and an anticodon?
Given a sequence of nucleic acids (C G A A T G), be able to outline the complementary DNA strand, mRNA codon, and tRNA anticodon.
Given the genetic code table of codons and animo acid, be able to decode a mRNA sequence (give amino acid sequence). Understand how changes in the DNA sequence (mutations) result in changes in the amino acid sequence of proteins.

In adult onset (type II) diabetes, there is a reduction in the number of functional insulin receptors in tissues such as the liver. Describe how this results in high levels of glucose in the blood. Is this an example of an altered set point, a positive feedback cycle, or the failure of a negative feedback cycle?