Exam 2 Study Questions

Organelles & Protein Synthesis

Know your organelles!!!!!  General structure and function.
Which organelles have double membranes?
Mitochondria are found in the _________ and produce _____________. 
The two major structures of the cytoskeleton are ___________ & _____________. They are made up of the proteins _______ and ________, respectively.
The _______ is the assembly site for ribosomes. 
Which organelles are composed of sacs and tubules?
What is the structural and functional difference between SER and RER?
What is the function of the Golgi apparatus?  How does it relate to the RER?
What is the function of lysosomes?  What do lysosomes contain?
What is the cytoskeleton?  What are its major components?
What is the difference between a cilium and a flagellum?  Where are they found in the body?
Why does the nucleus have pores?  What is the nuclear pore complex?
What is the difference between a gene, chromatin, and a chromosome?
How is a gene "decoded" to make a protein?  Outline the major steps.  Where do the major steps take place?
What are the three types of RNA and what are their roles in protein synthesis?
Where would one find a codon and an anticodon?
Given a sequence of nucleic acids (C G A A T G), be able to outline the complementary DNA strand, mRNA codon, and tRNA anticodon.

Histology
Know the defining characteristics and functions of the major tissue types.
Be able to identify the tissue types based on a sketch or a description.
Epithelial tissue is classified on the basis of ___________ & ____________.
Connective tissue is classified on the basis of ___________ & __________.
The three types of muscle tissue are _________ , _________, and ______. ______ & ______ are striated, but _________ is not. __________ is "voluntary" but _______ & _______ are not.
Intercalated discs are found in ____________. What is their function in that tissue?
Densely packed collagen fibers are found in ____________ connective tissue. (be specific)
Most glands are derived from _____________ tissue.
Simple squamous epithelium is found where __________ is important.
Joints are generally lined with ________ ___________, except in "heavy duty" joints like the intervertebral discs where ________ _______ is found.
Fat storage is the primary function of __________ tissue.
_____________ ____________ is found in the internal lining of bladder.
What are the three types of cartilage? Where are they found?
Why is blood classified as a connective tissue?
What is the primary function of GAGs in cartilage?
Osteocytes and chondrocytes reside in spaces called____________.
Edema commonly occurs in ____________________ tissue. (be specific)
Fibroblasts are found in _______________________ tissue.
Nervous tissue is specialized for _____________________________.
The two cell types found in nervous tissue are _________ and ___________.
All cells in a simple epithelium are anchored to a structure called the _______ ______.
The primary cell type found in cartilage is the _________________________.
The primary cell type found in areolar tissue is the ____________________.
Fibers of connective tissue may be ________________, __________________ or reticular.
The most abundant type of cartilage is ____________________________cartilage.

Integument
What are the key functions of the skin?
The pH of skin tends to be _________.
How is the skin “protective?” (there is more than one way!)
If given a diagram of the epidermis or the whole skin, be able to identify/label the major layers and structures.
What are the four cell types found in the epidermis? What are their respective functions?
Which layer of the epidermis is “optional?”
If given a diagram of the epidermis, be able to label the strata and associated cell types.
If given a diagram of a hair follicle and associated structures (sebaceous gland, arrector pili), be able to identify/label the major structures.
In which layer of the epidermis are melanocytes found? What is the function of melanocytes? Melanocytes are different from keratinocytes -- explain.
Explain how the epidermis grows (or explain how the different epidermal layers form).
What factors (cells, pigments) determine a person’s skin color?
What is keratin? What is its function and in what structures is it found?
What determines one’s hair color (besides genes and stuff you buy at the drug store)?
What are two functions of the arrector pili? What controls the arrector pili?
What are the layers of the dermis?
What is the hypodermis? What the role of fat in the hypodermis?
What do ceruminous glands secrete?
What is sebum?
What is acne? Why does it increase during puberty?
What is a line of cleavage (or Langer’s line)?
What is a stretch mark? What causes them?
What is vitamin D? What is its function? How is it produced? Why is it often considered to be a hormone rather than a vitamin? How does it relate to rickets? Can adults get rickets? Why or why not?
What are positive and negative health aspects of sun exposure?
How does aging affect the skin?
Why is it unlikely that a person's hair would turn white overnight?
What is the basis of gray hair?
What is a decubitis ulcer and what causes one? (not in notes: see clinical applications at end of chapter)
Why would an elderly person be more prone to decubitis ulcers?
List three effects of the sun on skin.
Hair growth is due to mitosis of cells within the __________.
What is a freckle?
What are the 3 types of skin cancer? How do they differ from one another? Which is the most serious type and which is the least serious type? Why?
What is metastasis?
What is the “ABCD” method of diagnosing melanoma?
Is it possible to have a cancer of the stratum corneum? Why or why not?
What is male pattern baldness? Can women get male pattern baldness?
A man has filed a legal suit against the maker of minoxidyl (Rogaine), claiming that it caused hair to grow on his palms. What is the major scientific flaw in this case?
Propecia (finasteride) is used to treat male pattern baldness. How does it work?
What is the difference been apocrine and eccrine sweat glands?
What is a pheromone?
What is the difference between a first, second and third degree burn? Why is an extensive third degree burn life-threatening? (there are two key reasons).
Which type of burn requires skin grafts? Why?
What is the “rule of 9’s?”
Some drugs used to treat irregular heart rhythms block the action of the sympathetic nervous system (see chapter 14). One side-effect of such drugs, e.g., atropine or belladonna, is hyperthermia (over-heating) -- patients taking these drugs are advised not to over exercise and to avoid hot tubs and spas. Why is there a danger of hyperthermia for these patients?

Practice Questions
Matching: Match the description on the left with the tissue on the right. Answers may be used more than once.

List four tissues that have numerous collagen fibers.
The most abundant type of cartilage is ____________________________cartilage.
Osteocytes and chondrocytes reside in spaces called ________________________.

If joint capsules were constructed of dense regular connective tissue rather than dense irregular connective tissue, what might be an advantage and a disadvantage of this?

Study Questions: Skeletal Tissue

How does bone differ from cartilage in classifications, structure, function, and vascularity.
How are bones classified?
What are the functions of bone? (4-5 general functions)
Hematopoiesis is a fancy name for ______ _____ ________.
What is a sesamoid bone? What are two sesamoid bones that almost everyone have?
Be able to sketch and/or label a diagram of a long bone or an osteon.
What is the difference between an osteocyte, an osteoblast and an osteoclast?
Outline the hormonal pathways that regulate calcium homeostasis.
What structures connect osteocytes to each other?
What structure connects adjacent central canals?
What is the difference between red and yellow bone marrow?
What is hydroxyapatite?
Contrast endochondral ossification and intramembranous ossification.
What types of bones typically form via endochondral ossification? via intramembranous ossification?
What is the difference between an epiphyseal plate and an epiphyseal line?
What is appositional growth?
Name three hormones that affect or influence bone growth. (Hint: not the hormones that regulate calcium homeostasis).
What is Wolff’s law?
Why do astronauts loose bone density as a result of prolonged space flights?
What are the physiological causes of dwarfism (achondroplasia and pituitary dwarfism)?
What is acromegaly?
Who was "Andre the Giant"?
What is osteoporosis?
What are the risk factors for osteoporosis?
Why is osteoporosis more common in women than men?
Why do post-menopausal women often suffer from osteoporosis? What are the typical treatments (drug/hormone) for this disease? What are the drawbacks and benefits of using "ERT" to treat or prevent osteoporosis?
Why is "modest dress" considered a risk factor for osteoporosis?
What are the phases of fracture repair?
Distinguish between these common types of fractures: simple, compound, comminuted, compression, depressed, impact, spiral, transverse, oblique, and greenstick.
Which is the most dangerous type of fracture? Why?

Skeletal System: We covered most of this in lab --- here are some example questions…..

The zygomatic process, zygomatic arch, and mandibular fossa are structural features of the__________________ bone.

The frontal bone is separated from the parietal bones by the __________________ suture.

The ____________________ __________________ is a superiorly projecting spine from the ethmoid bone that serves as an attachment for the meninges covering the brain.

Teeth are contained in sockets, or _____________________, within the _____________ bone forming the upper jaw.

The paired ______________________ and _____________________ bones form the hard palate of the roof of the mouth.

The _______________________ ________________________ are fragile, scroll-like bones that project medially into the nasal cavity.

The ______________________________ process of the mandible articulates with the

__________________________________ fossa of the temporal bone to form the temporomandibular joint.

The ____________________ bone consists of a body and paired lesser and greater cornua.

A herniated disc is the rupture of the _________________ ___________________

and the protrusion of the _________________________ _________________________.

The odontoid process is a peglike process characteristic of the __________________ vertebra.

Paired pedicles and laminae support the ______________________ arch of each vertebra.

The ________________________________ surface of the sacrum provides a site of articulation with the ilium of the os coxa.

True ribs attach to the sternum by individual ______________________ cartilages.

The vertebra prominens is the __________________ ________________________ of the

__________________ _________________________ vertebra.

The sternal angle is formed between the ___________________ and ______________

of the sternum.

The two necks of the humerus are the ___________________ & __________________.

The acromion articulates with the ______________________ & the coracoid process

is primarily a site of ________________________ _____________________________.

The deltoid muscle attaches to the humerus at the ______________ ______________;

the biceps attaches to the _________________ at the _____________ ______________.

Interosseous membranes are found between the ________________ & ____________

and between the ______________________ & __________________________.

The ulna articulates with the ____________________ at the ______________________

whereas the radius articulates with the same bone at the ______________________.

Hitting your "funny bone" is due to the stimulation of the ________________ nerve

that runs behind the _______________ __________________ of the _____________.

The bones of the wrist are _____________________________ bones; the bones of

the palm are _______________________ bones.

The Achilles tendon attaches to the ____________________________.

The linea aspera is on the ___________________ surface of the __________________.

The ______________________ and ______________________ vertebral curvatures are

primary curvatures because they are present _____________________________.

_____________________________ is an abnormally pronounced lumbar curve.

The thumb, like the big toe, lacks a(n) __________________ ____________________.

When sitting, one's weight is primarily on his/her ______________ _____________.

The wedding ring surrounds this bone (be specific):________ ____________ _______

The female true pelvis is _____________________ er and _____________________er than the male true pelvis.

______________________ The tubercle of a rib articulates with this part of a vertebra.

______________________ Rib pairs #11 and #12, specifically.

______________________ A hole or perforation through a bone which allows nerves
and blood vessels to pass through.

______________________ Bone with greater and lesser wings.

______________________ "Independent" bone in throat area which is derived from embryonic gill arch.

______________________ "Plow-shaped" bone which forms part of nasal septum.

______________________ The occipital condyles articulate with this bone.

Clinical Conditions related to Skeletal System

What is cleft palate?

What is spina bifida?

What are spinal curvatures? Which ones are present at birth? (the primary curvatures) Which develop later in life? (the secondary curvatures)

What is the difference between lordosis, kyphosis and scoliosis?

A "extra ribs" typically develops on the _____________ ______________ vertebra. How do these ribs relate to thoracic outlet syndrome?

A bunion is a malaligned joint between the _________ _____________ and the ___________ ____________ of the big toe.

What is pes planus?

Know the difference between syndactyly and polydactyly. Which groups of humans have higher incidences of polydactyly? Why?

What is clubfoot or talipes?